Cause and Effect of Movie Crash Essay

Crash, a film directed by Paul Haggis in 2005, is a film that follows characters whose lives intertwine over the course of just a few hours. These characters all have different cultures, ethnicities and backgrounds, but are each in front of the identical issues of racial discrimination and stereotyping because of their differences. Making the impression that â€Å"films are primarily concerned with the issues of everyday people† a highly accurate statement in regards to the movie Crash. Thoroughly Crash provides a look into these issues of discrimination and stereotyping and shows how they affect everyone’s lives. Crash is the perfect resemblance of how we as a human race deal with life, people and our own experiences. Physical characteristics and racial differences may be interpreted as two distinguishing traits that separate us. I think it’s what keeps us away from each other. It also shows how everyone’s actions can cause a current effect on another person’s life. Together we are all connected to one another by just crossing one another’s paths while been in possession of our lives. A person’s views and beliefs can have an outcome on how one behaves towards other people. The opening scene is great in presenting the issue of racism right from the start. There has been a load on a motorway and Detective Ria is soon arguing with an Asian lady. â€Å"I ‘Blake’ too fast? I’m sorry, you no see my ‘Blake’ lights†? †¦Maybe you see over steering wheel, you ‘Blake’ too.† These harsh words set the film up for a story full of racism and discrimination. Paul Haggis uses this negative mood to prove the anger. What Haggis is showing is that when you’re in your car, you feel safe and oblivious to everything outside of your world because you are secluded in your own little space. It’s only if you crash that you have to deal with the reality of what’s happening outside your own life. This is much the same with racial discrimination. You can live in your own little bubble, but when you find yourself â€Å"crashing into† someone else’s life, you’ll be forced to deal with your racial discrimination. John Ryan is one of the characters from the movie Crash. John role in the movie is a racist cop who always seems to show hate towards anyone he feels is a threat to him, mainly because him being a cop, he has the authority to do so over most people. He basically picks on anyone he feels is an irritation to him. In the movie his circumstances are very interesting, especially the way it effects different situations and other characters from the movie. Officer Ryan in the first scene that he is in, it shows him speaking on a pay phone in a diner. He is arguing about his elderly father medical condition and need for more testing and medications. After a couple minutes of speaking his conversation does not gets nowhere with the person on the phone, he ask them for their name. When she replies that her name was Shaniqua he says â€Å"that’s what I thought†. His attempt at trying to use reverse psychology on Shaniqua is very poor to get her to see his dad, it does make sense. However, she sees right through that and sees that he’s just being a racist prick. Then when he goes to the office in person it is the same women he had spoken with on the phone previously. He started off trying to be polite and civil. Regardless of his current behavior the woman cannot forget his being racist prick. All that officer Ryan cause was for Shaniqua to respond in a negative way. Officer Ryan’s request for further testing and a new Doctor for his sick father were rejected. Officer Ryan doesn’t stop, and then tries to explain why he is a racist to Shaniqua. He tells her of when the city of L.A passed a minority act John Ryan’s father loses his business, because almost all of his employees are working minorities. I think this adds or might even be one of the main reasons that causes John to become a racist individual towards others. Causes him to blame the minorities for the closure of his father’s business, (after all if it wasn’t f or them being minorities his father would still have his business) influencing him to mistreat people of other races. Shaniqua calls the buildings security to remove Officer Ryan from the building. Officer Ryan is out on patrol and pulls over the vehicle of a black couple Cameron and Christine, because the vehicle sort of matched the description of the D.A.’s stolen car. Because of his racist attitudes he proceeds to do an unnecessary body search just because he has the authority and disrespectfully molests Christine in front of her husband, and this act probably makes him feel like he’s getting even, maybe even like he’s getting â€Å"revenge† on minorities for ruining his sick dads business. Because it was their †fault† that the act was passed, but in reality John just seems to need someone to blame and African Americans are the easiest for him to criticize. For the reason that, Officer Ryan’s behavior towards Christine it has cause this couple to fight after getting home. Christine is angry that Cameron did not stop Officer Ryan from molesting her. This fight would never have happened if not for the why that Officer Ryan had treated them earlier. After that the discord and emotional distress that Christine was under. There is a serious car accident involving Christine upset and hurt and to a complete loss to be driving, which in turn causes the accident. She is badly injured in a car that is turned over, and refuses her only help from whom other then John Ryan. She seems scared and frightened when he approaches the scene and tries to help. I think at this very moment Ryan must have a huge change of heart and redeems himself, because he actually really wants to help Christine instead of hurting her, a minority, someone John Ryan would usually mistreat and maybe even ignore at this point. The cause of him molesting Christine caused the mistrust between them, but during the life threatening situation they were both in, he probably realize he had been wrong, as he strongly convinces Christine he was not going to hurt her. He even rushed back in to save her after being pulled out without. Christine even with the car being totally in flames right before the car blows up, he was able to get her out on time. This accident and the initial reaction of Christine towards Officer Ryan when he is trying to help her get out of the remains, it is showing himself the reason why he became a cop. That it did not matter what a person’s race was that they were still a person. However, that could possibly be the most important theme of Crash is how these racial stereotypes were able to be shattered. Or on the other side of the coin is how easy it is to fall and jump into judgement someone else by their race or even how they look or talk. In one of the last scenes of the movie Offi cer Hansen, shoots and kills the African American that was reaching in his pocket for his Saint Christopher statute. To show him that he had the same as the one Officer Hansen had on his dash board. Officer Hansen, assuming it was a gun the young black man was reaching in his pocket for. He shot the young man and killed him. The young man just happened to be detective Grimm’s younger brother. Officer Hansen must have realized in that moment what his ex-partner officer Ryan had meant when he had spoken to him at the start of the shift. Those words spoken had been the truth more than he wished to have to acknowledge. Crash. Dir Paul Haggis 2005 Perf Matt Dillion and Don Cheadle, DEJ Productions, DVD Crash. Dir. Paul Haggis. Perf. Sandra Bullock. Movies | Movie Trailers | Reviews – Rotten Tomatoes. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. . Koban, Craig J. â€Å"Afilm Review: Crash.† CrAiGeR’s Cinema Corner. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .

One Size Fits All Essay

One size fits all is a term that we have all heard in our society. This cliche has been applied to clothing, wrist watches, necklaces and bike helmets. This universal fit concept is, unfortunately, the thinking behind most public education today. As we know, one size fits all is anything but. Just as people are physically built differently, we all have diverse learning styles and capabilities. Public high schools in the United States are also built around this idea. I believe that public high school promotes the aim of capitalistic goals, instead of promoting â€Å"Some believe that one remedy to unequal educational opportunities is choice. †(pg 298). I am an advocate for charter school education, though I was never able to attend one. I recognize that high school students have different interest and passions. In Creating Comprehensive High Schools, James Constant suggest special academic arrangements be made for highly gifted the that â€Å"these students are challenged not only by course work, but by the development of their special interest as well. (Pg 329) I feel every student should be afforded the opportunity to develop their interests, gifts and strengths in the public school setting. To just give this privilege that is paid for with public monies to certain students, instead of all, based upon the observation of teachers is unfair. Especially, in schools where students live with socio-economic issues that impact their education negatively. If a talented student has not eaten breakfast, how can he concentrate on class assignments to his best ability? If a student has not had great academic advantages and exposures, such as those found in elite prep schools, how can he attain the same study habits and principles? Should not these students be allowed to develop their special interests in order to have the best public educational high school experience? Charter schools give the benefit of specialized interest instruction, uses similar educational state standards with flexibility and is backed by public tax dollars. I believe this type of education involves more choice than the traditional public high school. Choice is a huge part of life and why should we deprive high school students with this right in their education, when they are expected to make healthy decisions on their own upon education. As a society, we need to start promoting more autonomy amongst high school students in their educational pursuits. Today’s educational system is not out to teach students how to think, but essentially what to think. Instead of preparing students for higher education or to be free-thinkers, I believe our educational system is set up to crank out workers. As workers, we are set up to graduate with minimum skills and go out into the world to get jobs, not professions. My high school experience was more like a prison, than preparing me to be a free-thinker in the real world. Our curriculum was mediocre at best, ensuring that we can read, write and follow basic instructions to coincide with the rudimentary math skills. I spent fifty minutes in one classroom on one subject six times a day. In the fifty minutes I spent in each class, 10 minutes of that was taken up with teachers attempting to take roll and focus the class on that day’s lesson. The learning objectives were rushed and we were not given sufficient time to apply any material covered in the classroom, especially in science courses. As soon as I would get mentally involved in the subject I was learning the bell would ring. I was then rushed like cattle off to another classroom with five minutes of travel time. The next teacher would begin attendance and the routine from the previous course would begin all over again. This was the educational cycle of my high school experience every day for four years of my life. I think the high school educational public system is set up as a cash crop such as the prison system or genetically engineered soy bean for that matter. Reason being is all the unnecessary information that the schools ask personally about your child. Such as race gender and economic status are not being . These particular categories are then contracted to survey and â€Å"research† companies which are owned or not-for-profit organizations which either in turn have contributed large sums of donations or sponsored their events such as Pfitzer. A high-end pharmaceutical company, who specializes in making psycho-stimulant drugs, that have not been FDA approved to experiment with our children if they do not meet the criteria for an evolving student in that type of educational system. This is a system that says your education is a one size fits all eve though the staff faculty and board members know that every child learns differently they also know that cultural differences have an influence on your child’s learning habits as well. Will they and have they decided to come up with a different type of curriculum to teach those with a different learning style then the masses.

Contemporary vs Society in 1984

A. P. English 12 21 March 2011 Contemporary Society vs. 1984 In his dystopian novel 1984, Orwell expresses his vision of the nearing future through a fictional plot. Within the plot, Winston Smith, the novel's protagonist, lives a life controlled entirely by a manipulative and exploitative government. He, embodies the stereotypical personality of each citizen of Oceania—a person who abides by the laws of the ruling Big Brother government. Through the developing setting and characterization of our protagonist, the reader is able to witness the numerous aspects of control, manipulation and exploitation exercised by the Party and Big Brother. As his frustrations with the Party's control of history and longing desire to meet with a female co-worker increase, Winston begins to question the society he once aimlessly conformed to and the laws he once followed. Through Winston’s ordeal, Orwell expresses his concerns with an exponentially expanding American government. Such gross violations of personal liberties have played a prominent role in America's past as well as in its present. While writing the novel, Orwell recollected his childhood experiences in an oppressed India and began to draw comparisons to the then-current state of America. During the 1940s, America experienced increased military involvement, significant expansion of the federal bureaucracy and world dominance. In turn, Orwell’s writing of 1984 seemingly serves a cautionary and educational purpose. Honest government may expand into an oppressive one if its citizens do not vigilantly monitor its activity. In contemporary society, Americans face similar circumstances to those subject to the environment portrayed in 1984. The unfortunate happenings of the Terrorist Attacks on September 11th, 2001 still affect Americans presently. Consequently, Americans knowingly placed greater trust in their government and sacrificed certain liberties for superior security. Resulting legislation, such as the Patriot Act of 2001, allows the US government to bypass certain privacy rights in order to ensure safety within the nation. During the summer of 1798, the Alien and Sedition Acts passed by congress brought the United States closer to a â€Å"Big Brother† institution than ever before. The Alien Act â€Å"authorized the president to arrest and deport aliens suspected of ‘treasonable' leanings† Davidson 219). With no clear definition as to what actually constitutes a â€Å"treasonable leaning,† the president could've forced someone out of the United States the instant they engaged in a form of anti-American protest. Surveillance cameras in most buildings and some public streets further demonstrates the constant and grim reality of governmental supervision. US troops are stationed throughout the Mi ddle East in addition to their already inhabited locations. Similar to those subject to the omniscient Big Brother government in 1984, Americans are controlled by specific qualities and principles, social constraints, manipulated by a homogenous and monopolized society and exploited by the falsified allure of the â€Å"American Dream. † â€Å"Freedom is the freedom to say that two plus two make four. If that is granted, all else follows. † (Orwell, p81). Such a simplistic definition of freedom misleads those striving for absolute freedom. In fact, American and Oceanian citizens share ultimate freedom if freedom was solely confined to its previously stated definition. However, the reader knows that those within Oceania are enslaved by their own totalitarian government. Therefore, freedom's true definition is much more complex and often contradictory. The contradictory nature of freedom and democracy proves the similarities between America and Oceania. Although not as radical of their 1984 counterparts, Americans defer to an elitist society to maintain their â€Å"freedom. † â€Å"In a paradox for democratic theory, the masses express the greatest confidence in the most elitist, nonelected branch of the government† (Dye 309). With greater confidence, comes blind trust. Since Americans allow a minority of elitists to dictate their society, true freedom and democracy cannot exist. Therefore, Americans are more like pawns that are governed by a select few, which was the reality of those subject to the Party, rather than the assumed impression that the majority controlled its own destiny. Throughout Orwell's novel, 1984, a fictional character named Big Brother exists. Throughout the town of Oceania are constant reminders of Big Brother's existence and his limitless oversight on the community. In addition to the sense of surveillance by Big Brother, telescreens within every household and microphones scattered across the town, further accentuate the lack of privacy within Oceania. Ultimately, in 1984, technology’s sole purpose was to intrude into each citizen's personal and private life. As technology further engulfs itself in modern society, aspects of 1984 are become more prominent. While telescreens are not exactly monitoring us every second of the day, many people are probably unaware of how public most of their private life really is. Between computers and security cameras, it really is not too hard for a member of some government agency to keep track of what someone does everyday. In contemporary society, human interaction and technology are becoming exceedingly intertwined. The rapid advancement of technology has allowed for the possibility of an inseparable combination of humans and technology. Upon writing his novel, Orwell extrapolated much of the detail about the technology within 1984 because of its unavailability or primitive features. The technology of modern society far exceeds that of 1984. If government could utilize lesser quality technology and control an entire population, what could amass if the technology were superior? Cell phones, computers, cameras, global positioning systems (GPSs) and other significant technological inventions in modern society have numerous benefits, but beget several drawbacks to ponder. Within each computer and cell phone are locating devices which allow the respected companies to observe the websites visited and the location of the each device. Wiretapping, legalized by the Patriot Act of 2001, permits governmental monitoring of telephone and Internet conversations to ensure safety. Surveillance cameras survey the actions of pedestrians to prevent crime. Although most of these cameras are operated by private businesses, privacy is still invaded. Realistically, the government’s use of technology as a means to intrude on American privacy is a definite possibility. In the past, and currently, the US government has used technology in order to ensure safety despite sacrificing certain liberties. With humans bearing a greater dependence on technology, the exploitation of technology by the government would prove devastating and irreversible. â€Å"War was a sure safeguard of sanity, and so far as the ruling classes were concerned it was probably the most important of all safeguards. While wars could be won or lost, no ruling class could be completely irresponsible† (Orwell 198). The focal point of the Oceania’s economy was its overextending military. The constant war, overshadowed by the developing plot involving Winston, provides justification and a safeguard against its citizens. The purpose in participating in a perpetual war is to consume human labor and commodities. Without commodities, Oceania is able to justify their engagement in an unwinnable and â€Å"necessary† war. In addition, constant warfare keeps the population fearful, and creates emergency conditions whereby the government can expand its powers. People, manipulated into fear, will respond more favorably to regulations in times of war. Accompanying the sacrifice of personal liberties, following the distressing events on September 11th, 2001, includes an extension of military activity. First beginning with Former President Bush, and current President Obama, the US Army is combative throughout the world, specifically the Middle East, in its attempt to curtail acts of terrorism. Seemingly, as in the case with Oceania, the United States is continuously in a warring state. When peace is made with one country, war is claimed or threatened on another nation to continue a military presence. The Department of Defense, comparable to the Minister of Peace, allocates the largest level of budgetary resources and coordinates the activity of the United States armed forces. Not counting the cost of the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the Defense budget is expected to be $553 billion in 2012, up from $549 billion in 2011† (Factor 24). In addition, the Department of Defense posts useless statistics, incorrect economic predictions, and slanted opinions polls. The most infamous example of incorrect statistics and bias speech was Former President Bush’s Mission Accomplished speech. In spite of the continuing warfare, Bush stated this was the end to major combat operations in Iraq. Certain aspects of the Oceania war machine further manipulate the actions of the Oceanian citizens. The government of Oceania, orchestrated by the Party, influences its citizens into believing that they have a common enemy in the Brotherhood, specifically Goldstein. The Two Minutes of Hate, a daily period in which Party members of Oceania must watch a film depicting The Party's enemies, entices mob action and a blind expression of hate. The picture of Goldstein comes up on the screen, while the people scream in anger and horror at the image. Goldstein, they are told, is everywhere and must be destroyed. The similarities to modern society are more real than apparent and speak to what has been happening in the United States since World War II. Each significant event in history has seen evil characters that have been determined on destroying â€Å"the American way of life. † During World War 2, Adolph Hitler and Josef Stalin led the rise of fascism and against democratic principles. During the Red Scare, Mao Tse-Tung of China disturbed American peace with communists influence on the American public. During the Arms Race, Lenoid Brehznev of the USSR challenged the social integrity of America. During the 1980s, Saddam Hussein of Iraq and now Bin Laden promoted use of terrorist attacks to harm Americans. Like Goldstein in Oceania, each man menaced society, striking fear and hatred into the peoples’ hearts. After their deaths, American society was not safer and soon after a replacement continued to terrorize America. Ultimately, the Party’s slogan â€Å"War is Peace† perfectly represents their exploitation of war and stronghold over their citizens. Through the expression of the slogan, the Party contends that in times of war, Oceania is at peace. Such a contradictory statement provides an example of the Party’s use of â€Å"double think† and manipulation of the people. Oceania – the Party – is able to remain at peace during times of war because of a war’s natural temperament. War acts as a means to ensure a stagnant social structure and prevent true socialism. War, specifically in 1984, guarantees a destruction of produce (Orwell 191). With a scarcity of produce, economic disparity becomes apparent and overprotection of produce becomes unlikely. Thus, the Party is â€Å"at peace† because revolution or any social change is improbable. Similarly, war has a parallel effect in modern society. In times of war, America is economically and socially stable. War creates an abundance of jobs which distills any opposition from the lower class which has an innate tendency to protest the actions of the highest class (Orwell 199). Industries rejoice as the government agrees to purchase any and all military related goods. The government expands its power by restricting several personal liberties which are voluntarily and willingly bequeathed by the people. The nation rallies around a common enemy, fueled by propaganda, and confidence in its government reaches a pinnacle. War establishes peace to authorities dictating the path of the nation: War is peace. Throughout 1984, the Party, in accordance with the Ministry of Truth manipulates its control of the past and rewrites history. In rewriting history, the Party ensures the completion of one of its slogan: â€Å"Ignorance is Strength. † The constant change of the â€Å"truth: and destruction of supporting records, allows the Party to keep its citizens ignorant of its true actions. Thus, the Party avoids confrontation with questioning and aware citizens. To address those unaffiliated with the Party, the Party ses a more indirect approach to keep the Proles ignorant. With guaranteed liberties, the Proles are content with their uncommon privileges and do not seek to interrupt their happiness and therefore do not challenge the Party. According to the Party, promoting ignorance prevents doubt and creates a powerful strength in the idea. The only way to keep an idea strong is to remove all suspicion of doubt. If one has no reason to question a belief, then that belief will remain despite its unreasonableness. And if this lack of questioning can become indefinite, then the belief is also indefinite. In American history, some events are understated, while others are overstated to glorify patriotism or conform to modern belief. Most recently, President Bush’s vacillation through several reasons to invade Iraq provide an example of understatement and deceit in politics. Initially, President Bush stated that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction which would prove harmful to Americans in the near future. After no weapons of mass destruction were found, President Bush stated that then President Saddam Hussein had anthrax and other biological harmful weapons. Anthrax was found in Iraq; however, the United States did not mention that the same anthrax was sold to Iraq by America. President Bush, then, justified the military activity in Iraq by claiming to fight terrorism and spread democracy. Congressmen, who supported the War of Terrorism, eventually reversed their opinions of the war and stated that the President and the Department of Defense provided inaccurate accounts of the terrorist activity in Iraq. President Bush’s waving between his reasoning to invade Iraq demonstrates an ability to keep Americans ignorant of the true motives of US invasion in Iraq. In 1984, there was an obvious separation of wealth. The London that Winston Smith calls home is a dilapidated, rundown city in which buildings are crumbling, conveniences such as elevators never work, and necessities such as electricity and plumbing are extremely unreliable. The grimy urban decay offers insight into the Party’s priorities through its contrast to the immense technology the Party develops to spy on its citizens. The conditions O’Brien, an Inner Party member, lived with greatly differed from the livelihood of Winston. O’Brien’s home was ornately furnished and enjoyed the likeness of cigars, coffee and tea. In modern society, the trend continues. The wealthy can afford to live lavishly, while the poor can barely afford to live. The concentration of wealth significantly favors the elitists. Those poor, in America and Oceania, ignorantly misuse their money on lotteries with the false hope of becoming wealthy. Despite being regarded as a fictional novel, 1984 and its portrayal of a controlling and exploitative government are comparable to the current conditions of modern society. Through Winston’s characterization, Orwell expresses his concerns with an exponentially expanding American government and a foreseeable future. Orwell, as told through 1984, envisioned a world of constant surveillance, where the privacy of the individual was virtually extinct. Although the technology he predicted seems unsophisticated, the concept of surveillance is applicable. Naturally, as the government expands, intrusion on the personal lives of its citizens is becoming accessible and simple. The use of technology, such as computers and cell phones, is becoming greatly intertwined in human interaction and everyday life. These advances in technology can be interpreted both positively and negatively. Legislations, such as the Patriot Act (2001) and the Alien and Sedition Act, have given the government an almost limitless means to interrogate radical thinkers. With the initial reading of this polemic book, Orwell’s work was subjected to pillory of all sorts; however as society has let time take its course it seems that those who criticized this work were the most jejune of all, about our Lugubrious society.

Experimental Designs II Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Experimental Designs II - Assignment Example For example, in a 2x2 factorial ANOVA with levels A1 and A2 of Factor Aand levels B1 and B2. An ANOVA test would test the significant differences between the marginal means, which are called simple Main Effects of each factor. This is because they illustrate the overall difference between the levels of each factor, independently of the levels of the other. The ANOVA also tests for the significance differences between the Cell Means; in other words, the four means relevant to the AxBinteraction effect (Jackson, 2012). According to Jackson, the test also determines if the effects of the independent variable (IV) are independent of each other, or whether the effects of one IV depend on the level of the factor. Key effects are differences in means over levels of one factor that is collapsed over levels of the other factor (s) (Jackson, 2012). No.6 The difference between a complete factorial design and an incomplete factorial design is laid out in how experimental conditions are dealt wit h. A Complete Factorial Design (CFD) consists of all factors and levels of each factor, it is also capable of estimating all factors, and their interactions (Jackson, 2012). An incomplete factorial design is arrived at when experimental conditions are removed from a complete factorial design. ... No.8 The difference between a two way ANOVA and a three-way ANOVA is that a two-way ANOVA test is used when there are more than one IV requiring multiple observations for each IV. The two-way test determines the main effect contributions of each IV and indicates if there is a significant interaction effect amongst the IVs. The three way ANOVA is used to determine the effect of three nominal predictor variables that are based on a continuous outcome variable. The three-way test evaluates the effect of the IV on the expected outcome together with their relationship in the outcome (Jackson, 2012). Random factors are considered to have no statistical impact on a given data set, unlike systematic factors that are considered to hold statistical significance. No. 10 Source df SS MS F A 1 60 60 1.420 B 2 40 20 24.170 AxB 2 90 81 0.125 Error 30 200 100 1.884 Total 35 390 261 27.599 a). Factorial notation –1x2 = 2 b). There are 2 conditions in this particular study. c). Number of subjec ts in the study – 3 d). Main effect for B, no significant interaction Source df SS MS F A 2 40 20 0.85 B 3 60 18 9 AxB 6 150 130 0.867 Error 72 150 75 Total 83 400 243 15.717 a). Factorial notation – 2 x 3. b). There are 6 conditions. c). Subjects in study - 2 d). No main effects. There is a significant interaction. Source df SS MS F A 1 60 60 132 B 2 40 20 98 AxB 2 90 45 135 Error 30 200 6.67 Total 35 390 131.67 245 a). Factorial notation – 1 x 2 b). There are 3 conditions. c). Subjects in study - 2 d). Main effect for B. No significant interaction. Source df SS MS F A 1 10 10 0.10 B 1 60 60 30 Error 36 80 40 Total 39 150 110 30.10 a). Factorial notation – 1 x 1 b). 1 condition c). Subjects in study - 1 d). Main effect for A and B. Significant

The role of Theories and Principles in Education for Work - My Essay

The role of Theories and Principles in Education for Work - My Philosophy as a lecturer - Essay Example It therefore aims at achieving comprehensive and general results (Phillips 2009) The scope of philosophy of education Aims and ideals of education philosophy Education evaluates critically the different ideals and aims of education. The various philosophers have propagated these in the different times. They are man making, character building, preparation for adult life, utilization of leisure, training for the international living, achieving national and social integration education for all among others (Phillips 2009). Interpretation of human nature- A philosophical picture of the nature of human is a result of facts that are borrowed from human science with values discussed in the different normative sciences. Educational values- value is a philosophical subject as it is more integral, abstract and universal. Theory of knowledge- There is a relationship between education and knowledge. This is determined by the limits, criteria, source, and the means of knowledge. These fall within the epistemology’s jurisdiction. Relationship existing in education and the different areas of national life and the different components of the education system- Philosophy provides the criteria for deciding relationship of economic system and education, state and education school organization curriculum and management among others (Phillips 2009). ... It also prepares young generation to face challenges of modern time (Phillips 2009) Issue of power, otherness, and democracy The issue of power comes in where the political power provides the policies in education system. The leadership in the institution has also the powers to change the teaching methods applied by an individual lecturer. The issue of otherness is also applicable when finding a civil space for sharing different commonalities of people based on understanding that the people need to learn to live with otherness of others whose of being might be threatening deeply to their own. The issue of democracy is seen where students are seen as a significant group of population in the institution. Lecturers and other staff members are also recognized in the institution (Haynes 2009) Explain the main philosophical thoughts and theories of education Constructivism It is because we tend to construct our own perspective of the world through schema and individual experiences. Radical constructivism by Ernst Von Glaserfeld has been the most influential (Glaserfeld 1995, 2007). The main element in constructivism is that knowledge is not discovered or found but rather it is constructed or made by humans. This have however been interpreted by different groups of constructivists differently. Kant (1959) states that â€Å"But though all of our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it all arises out of experience. For it may well be that even our empirical knowledge is made up of what we receive through impressions and of what our own faculty of knowledge †¦ supplies from itself.† Several issues arise from this: first there is the question of whether it is credible enough to believe that whatever we have

Eassy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Eassy - Essay Example The best way through which a manager can be able to know the areas that they are strong in is through feedback analysis. Within a short period of about three years, this simple method can always show a manageable areas in which they are strong and those in which they are weak. With knowledge of one’s strength a manager should seek to improve their strength in order to maximize their productivity. A manager should also be aware of the ways through which their intellectual arrogance can lead to ignorance something that can be very costly to the business they run. People usually have different ways of doing things. It is important for a manager to know exactly how they usually work. The way in which people work is usually highly influenced by their personalities. However, the good thing is that a person can always change the way they work (Drucker, 1999). People might not be able to completely change the way they work, but they can be able to slightly modify the manner in which they work. A manager should be able to be aware of their own values. For instance, there are people who easily gain knowledge through listening while the other would easily gain knowledge through reading. People are rarely able to be good in getting knowledge through both means. This implies that a manager who does not know where their values are might end up opting for the wrong methods. With the lack of understanding of one’s values it is clearly evident that the manager will never be able to reach their full potential. However, a manager with the full knowledge of their values can always know those things that complement their values and bring out the best from them (Mintzberg, 1975). With full knowledge of oneself a manager can be able to know exactly where they belong. Some managers usually find themselves not being able to perform as expected of them. This is not always because they are incapable of performing, but because

Causes and Effects of Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Causes and Effects of Obesity - Essay Example The first cause of obesity relates to bad eating habits, as the food which we incorporate is the main determinant of our body mass. The trend of junk foods nowadays results in the incorporation of the bad fats in the body. The bad food choices resulting due to the advertisements attracting the people towards the products cause long terms effects, the most important of which is obesity. Also, lack of awareness amongst individuals in related to the poor eating habits, i.e. fats are basically of two main kinds; the saturated fats and the unsaturated fats. The saturated fats are the ones which are difficult for the body to break, and these are facts which are the main causes of obesity. (Wexler 2010) Secondly, the unhealthy lifestyle is also the sole determinant of the level of obesity. Our food intake won`t be as big of an issue if the fats are broken down properly, otherwise, fats incorporate in the bodies of the individuals. The trend of video games and the maximum activities over internet and computer results in the lack of strenuous activities amongst individuals. Thus, the body loses momentum, also lacks flexibility in the long run. Thus, when fats won`t be broken, they would definitely start accumulating under the skin resulting in obesity. Lastly, one of the main causes of obesity also lies in the emotional imbalances of individuals (Mocan 2009). Stress and other emotional issues found amongst individuals results in the hormonal imbalances. These hormonal imbalances result in the further distortion in the eating habits and the differences in the blood pressures. In the long term, it results in an increased obesity level. Analyzing the results or in other words the effects of the obesity, three main causes can be traced.

An Entrepreneur's Journey Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

An Entrepreneur's Journey - Assignment Example Both her personal and business life need maximum and equal attention. Simi will have a difficult time during the transition as first she has to find an appropriate house for the family, and one that she can afford. Her husband is dealing with the housing issue, but it has an effect on the family and their finances. In addition, she has her children’s education to worry about, as the move to Lagos will necessitate them to change school. Finding this a good school for the kids to settle is another challenge. The moving process will have a huge effect on the family as it involves many changes to their personal and professional lives. The children will have to change schools and the environment they have been used to. Simi and her husband will also have to adapt to the new personal and business environment they will now be exposed to (Davis and Spence 5). The move to Nigeria presents a new challenge to the survival of the business, which is only 2 years old. Simi had to put in measures that will ensure the survival of the business even without his husband’s presence throughout the year. She has to have a strategic plan on the sustainability of the business in both the long-term and short-term. To safeguard the survival of the business, Simi has taken several steps. The first step has been to ensure that she will find time to take care of the business by being there for 4 months in a year. This will give her the opportunity to deal with the company issues and assess the progress in her absence. In addition, she will keep constant communication with Feyi to help her in the day-to-day running of the business. Simi and Feyi have hired a marketing consultant to help them articulate the story to the media and public in general. This is a step to help the business gain more recognition and extend its outreach to more potential clients. This will help grow the business and ensure its

Macroeconomic Situation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Macroeconomic Situation - Essay Example Further, it was expected that the private consumption for the year 2010 and the year 2011 would be restrained at 2.5 percent. The rate of unemployment for the year 2010 and the year 2011 has been expected to be over 9% (United Nations, 2010). It was pointed out that with the fall in the prices of houses in the United States; there will be negative influence upon the balance sheets of the households. This would further slow down the rate of consumption and thus increase the rate of savings. The low interest rates and inefficient economic conditions have evened out the weakness in the household net value. Further, the long-term related ‘government bond yields’ have declined in the United States (OECD Economic Outlook, 2010). It has been estimated that the fiscal policy of the country has been identified by the stimulus spending. Further, the remaining $470 billion is expected to be paid out in the year 2010 and 2011 with a smooth decline of its effect upon the economy (Cor porate Executive Board, 2010). It has been assessed that the rate of the Dollar has declined by 11% against Euro that was worth $1.47. The manufacturing industry is expected to rise in the US (Bloomberg, 2011).

History Of Bloodstain Patterns Essay Example for Free

History Of Bloodstain Patterns Essay Function of bloodstain pattern analysis Bloodstain pattern interpretation/analysis has been around for many years but has only really been recognized in the past several decades. This interpretation/analysis is like a very important tool that an investigator or forensic scientist may use to help them better understand what happened or what did not happen in a case where there was bloodshed. Discoverable through the examination of bloodstain pattern The information that can be discovered or obtained when examining bloodstain patterns can help in apprehending a suspect, corroborating a witnesses statement, interrogating suspects, allowing for reconstruction of past events and lastly but probably the most important exonerating an accused. All bloodstains can provide important specifics to an event that occurred during an incident, so they are always examined. This is a very crucial part of an investigation, but it is never 100%, errors do occur. â€Å"Static Aftermath† There is such a thing called â€Å"static aftermath.† What an analyst evaluates is the static aftermath of an event; the shapes, volumes, patterns, number and size of bloodstains and their relationships to the scene. Timeline of bloodstain pattern analysis Surprisingly to me the study of bloodstain patterns has been going on since the 1800’s. On the following page is a time line showing the history of bloodstain patterns interpretation/analysis. The timeline I made begins in the 1860’s and goes through the 1970’s, not every significant moment is included on this particular timeline. 1970’s – MacDonell worked under a LEAA grant, and completed 3 different articles through the 1990’s. He has trained many in law enforcement and has developed courses to continue to train analysts. 1970’s – MacDonell worked under a LEAA grant, and completed 3 different articles through the 1990’s. He has trained many in law enforcement and has developed courses to continue to train analysts. 1863 -The Beck’s wrote â€Å"Elements of Medical Jurisprudence,† which discussed cases in which bloodstain pattern analysis was utilized. 1863 -The Beck’s wrote â€Å"Elements of Medical Jurisprudence,† which discussed cases in which bloodstain pattern analysis was utilized. 1939 – Balthazard is known for doing original research and experimentation with bloodstains and patterns. 1939 – Balthazard is known for doing original research and experimentation with bloodstains and patterns. 1882 – Professor Charles Tidy published â€Å"Legal Medicine.† 1882 – Professor Charles Tidy published â€Å"Legal Medicine.† 1955 – Dr. Kirk submitted bloodstain evidence and findings in a case; this was significant in recognition of bloodstain evidence by the legal system. 1955 – Dr. Kirk submitted bloodstain evidence and findings in a case; this was significant in recognition of bloodstain evidence by the legal system. 1895 – Piotrowski published a book concerning blood stains from blows to the head. 1895 – Piotrowski published a book concerning blood stains from blows to the head. 1880 – Henry Faulds published, â€Å"On-skin Furrows of the Hand,† described bloody fingerprints and their likely usage to identify the criminal. 1880 – Henry Faulds published, â€Å"On-skin Furrows of the Hand,† described bloody fingerprints and their likely usage to identify the criminal. 1856 Lassaigne wrote a paper that included discussion of marks that appeared to be bloodstains but was from insects. 1856 Lassaigne wrote a paper that included discussion of marks that appeared to be bloodstains but was from insects.

Concepts of Language and Cognitive Development

Concepts of Language and Cognitive Development 1. Introduction Language is a symbolic system in which a limited number of signals can be combined according to rules that can provide an infinite number of messages. An important milestone in human development is mastering some type of language. (Sigelman, Rider De George-Walker, 2013). Language is the primary method that adults pass on culturally valued models of thinking and problem solving to their children (Vygotsky, 1962). Basic language skills develop through the influence of parents, other adults, peers and even the media. 2. Language Development The nature vs. nurture debate continues into language development. One school of thought is that the environment contributes to learning. Children learn the words that they hear spoken by others-even when the words are not directly spoken to them (Floor Akhtar, 2006). The other school of thought by nativists who minimise the role of language environment and focus instead on the role of the child’s biologically programmed capacities to acquire language. Chomsky (2000) proposed that humans have a unique genetic capacity to learn language and are equipped with knowledge of a universal grammar, a system of common rules that enable any language to be learnt. Interactionists believe that both learning theorists (nurture) and nativists (nature) have merit. Children’s biologically based competencies and the language environment interact to shape the course of language development (Bloom, 1998) 3. Interaction between language and cognitive development Piaget proposed four major periods of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations stage and formal operations stage. The core message is that humans of different ages think in different ways. (Inhelder Piaget, 1958). During Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, birth to two years, infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. According to Gervain Mehler (2010) newborns immediately have a preference for speech over non-speech in their native language. By 7 months, infants demonstrate word segmentation. From birth infants produce a wide array of sounds that will eventually develop into language (Waxman Lidz, 2006), with cooing being the first vocalisation milestone at 6-8weeks. Babbling starts to occur at 4-6 months which Piaget labels as primary circular reaction. (Lee, Davis MacNeilage, 2010). As infants attempt to master the semantics of language, they begin to understand many words before the can say them and begin to say their first real words or holophrases at around 1 year. Many children have a vocabulary spurt at around 18months of age and the pace of word learning quickens dramatically. (Bloom, 1998). Secondary circular reactions begin to occur, following with tertiary circular reactions becoming intentional from the start. Piaget proposed that the child’s construction of reality takes place through the use of schemes and by the end of the sensorimotor stage they are capable of using symbolic thought using images and words. (Piaget, 2002) Vygotsky (1962) maintained that cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs. It develops from children’s interactions with members of their culture. Problem solving is passed on from generation to generation through oral communication, especially as it is embodied in language, shapes thought. (Sigelman, Rider, De George-Walker, 2013). In Piaget’s preoperational stage, 2 to 7 years, young children use their symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. They use words to talk about a problem and use categorisations which become the basis for language with each noun or verb representing a category. (Waxman, 2003). The next step in language development is telegraphic speech where toddlers begin to use a combination of two or three word sentences to express basic ideas. Between ages of 2-5 years children start to use sentences that are much longer and more grammatically complex. (Hoff, 2009). Children learn to phrase questions to solve problems and propel their cognitive growth. Throughout childhood and adolescence, advances in cognitive development are accompanied by advances in language and communication skills. Adults also refine the pragmatic use of language, adjusting it to different social and professional contexts. (Obler, 2005) 4. Multilingual Development According to Schwartz, Share, Leikin Kominski (2008), being bilingual or multilingual has benefits, as children have greater awareness of the underlying structure of language. Bilingual children are better understanding that words are symbols for objects and are better at applying grammatical rules. Bhargava Mendiratta (2007) purport that their study indicates that Indian children who are multilingual by mid-childhood are able to effectively use different languages in different contexts and participate well in the global economy. Swanson, Saez Gerber (2004) also states that children who speak more than one language score higher on cognitive ability and flexibility, and analytical reasoning, indicating that there are benefits of being bilingual. 5. Conclusion Developing a language competence is one of a human being’s earliest learning challenge. Language lays the foundation for further education and the acquisition of reading, writing and many other skills. Language development requires a child to be at the appropriate biological phases in an environment that is conducive to growth, with at least one conversational partner who is prepared to tailor the speech to the level of the child’s understanding to enhance cognitive development. References Bhargava, S., Mendiratta, A. (2006) Understanding language patterns of multilingual children (8-10 years) belonging to high socio-economic class. Social Science International, 22, 148-158. Bloom, L. (1998) Language acquisition in its developmental context. In D.Kuhn R. S. Sigler (Eds), W.Damon (editor-in-chief). Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 2, cognition, perception and language (5th ed., pp. 309-370). New York: Wiley Chomsky, N. (2000) New horizons in the study of language and mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Floor, P. Akhtar, N. (2006) Can 18 month old infants learn words by listening in on conversations? Infancy, 9,327-329. Gervain, J. Mehler, J. (2010). Speech perception and language acquisition in the first year of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 191-218. Hoff, E. (2009) Language development. Belmont CA: Wadsworth. Inhelder, B. Piaget, J. (1958) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures. (A Parsons S. Milgram, Trans). New York: Basic Books. Lee, S.A., Davis, B. MacNeilage, P. (2010) Universal production patterns and ambient language influences in babbling: A cross-linguistic study of Korean and English learning infants. Journal of Child Language, 37, 293-318. Obler, L.K. (2005) Language in adulthood. In J. B. Gleason (Ed.) The development of language (6th Edn) Boston: Allyn Bacon. Piaget, J. (2002). The epigenetic system and the development of cognitive functions. In R.O. Gilmore, M, H. Johnson, Y, Munakata (Eds.). Brain development and cognition: A reader (2nd ed, pp. 29-35) Malden: Blackwell. Schwartz, M., Share, D.L., Leikin, M., Kominsky, E. (2008) On the benefits of bi-literacy: Just a head start in reading or specific orthographic insights? Reading and Writing, 21,905-927. Sigelman C.K., Rider, E.A., De George-Walker, L. (2013). Life Span: Human Development. Australian and New Zealand edition. CENGAGE. Swanson, H., Saez, L. Gerber, M. (2004) Literacy and cognitive functioning in bilingual and nonbilingual children t or not at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 3-18. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language. E Hanfmann G. Vakar, (Eds Trans.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Original work published in 1934) Waxman, S.R. (2003) Links between categorisation and naming: Origins and emergence in human infant. In D.H. Rakison L.M. Oakes (eds.) Early category and concept development: making sense of the blooming, bussing confusion (pp. 193-209). New York. Oxford University Press. Waxman, S.R. Lidz, J.L. (2006) Early word learning. . In D.Kuhn R. S. Siegler (Vol. Eds), W.Damon R Lerner (Eds). Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 2, cognition, perception and language (6th ed., pp. 299-335). New York: Wiley

Supply chain initiatives at Apple Inc

Supply chain initiatives at Apple Inc For reasons as various as its philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design to its distinctive advertising campaigns, Apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry. This includes a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand, particularly in the United States.[10] Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world in 2008, 2009, and 2010.[11][12][13] The company has also received widespread criticism for its contractors labour, environmental, and business practices, 4 COMPETITIVE PRIORITIES AT APPLE INC. APPLE has managed to increase its market price by introducing new products to attract the customers. The recent products are APPLE Ipod and APPLE IPHONE 4G. Usability and Product design are the main key trends and competitive priorities of apple. The key element in manufacturing strategy are to identifying competitors manufacturing strategy research. In this study, Im gonna find which competitive priorities that APPLE used and which one helped APPLE the most in the areas of supply chain, quality and peformances. 1.1 COMPANY OVERVIEW APPLE INC. (NASDAQ: AAPL; previously APPLE COMPUTER, INC.) is an American multinational corporation, which produces consumer electronics, pc softwares and laptops. STEVE JOBS, STEVE WOZNIAK and RONALD WAYNE are the founder of APPLE INC, established in Cupertino, California on april1, 1976 and incorporated January 3 1977, and then the company was known by APPLE COMPUTER, INC. It leads the industry in innovation with its award-winning desktop and notebook computers, OS X operating system, ILife and its range of professional applications. Apple also spearheads the digital music revolution with its iPod portable music players and iTunes online music store. The company recorded revenues of 65.07 billion in the fiscal year ended March 2010, an increase of 34.06% over 2009. The companys operating profit was 18.27 billion in fiscal 2010, an increase of 35.74% over 2009. Its net profit was 14.01 billion in fiscal 2010, an increase of 41.23% over 2009. 1.2 OPERATIONS STRATEGY OF APPLE INC. The Operations Strategy of APPLE INC. Limited has changed as their business has evolved over time. The section below tracks the various key operations strategy such as the Manufacturing ( processes involved and locations), the Supply chain initiatives over the years, Inventory Management, Quality Management, Research and Development Initiatives, Procurement procedure, Vendor Management etc . The section highlights the key defining operational strategies adopted by the company during this period. 1.2.1 MANUFACTURING: When Steve Jobs launched the iMac in 1998, he was quoted as saying, these new product lines give people what they want most, a lightning fast laptop and a striking new consumer Macintosh. Is Jobs correct in this assessment? Is speed, look, and brand really the main drivers for consumers? Did Jobs strategy to capture market share in the personal computer industry focus on the right aspects? This paper will venture to say no and suggest the following alternative strategy: Apple should build a new business in Wintel PCs, while continuing to sell Macs to the design and publishing segment of the market. In order to support this conclusion, Apples competitive advantages and industry forces must be analysed. Apple has been in business since 1976, and released a number of new brands in competitive way. The four key tactis and differentiations are branding, new innovation in hardware design, high expectation in market shares and user friendly. In 1998, the consumers didnt want a MACHINTOSH. APPLES branding to the market is strong and has been since the1970s when APPLES customers waiting for their new innovations. The main component of apple is user friendly to the customers. Adding extra hardware and software to a Mac was almost easy as plugging speakers to the mobile phone. Because of this loyalty, apple was able to form a close relationship with its customers, particularly with the education and design publishing industries, which felt as 80% of APPLEs market position in 1998(Exhibit A). Furthermore, the 1998 Think Different campaign propagated Apples image as inventive and trendy. It enabled Apple to become a substitute based on design alone, giving it a particular edge over its khaki-clad competitors. Albeit these advantages, Apple still managed to lose a large amount of profit, and its market share dwindled from 8% to 3.4% from 1995 1998 (Exhibit B). The company also slipped in the education sector during this time by as much as 14% per year. In order to understand why Apple was losing so much ground, we must look into the power of suppliers and buyers in the industry. Most notably on the suppliers side are microprocessors and operating systems, where Intel and Microsoft are the dominant names. Because of their quasi-monopolies, which enable them to control commodities and manipulate pricing, these two suppliers have tremendous influence. Buyers, who also have strong influence because of the wide array of products available, were drawn to the Intel/Windows package (Wintel) because of the brand names, lower costs, and the wide proliferation of the products. Apple, however, chose to implement a PowerPC/MAC OS combination over the standard Wintel package. The main fallacy in Jobs o utlook was following this proprietary strategy. As a result, Apples reach to customers diminished. In 1998, Macintoshs operating system market share was at 5% compared to Microsofts dominance of almost 90%. Furthermore, this strategy can aid in the foreign arena, where Apple has the recognizable brand name and Wintel is the dominant platform. With analysts predicting the largest increases in growth rates through 2005 to be in the Asia/Pacific and the rest of the world , Apple will have a greater outlook for global success. Overall this strategy calls for Apple to focus on their competencies and move away from inefficient practices of the past. Allowing themselves to think outside of their proprietary boxes will no doubt increase their abilities to see ahead on the road to profitability. 1.2.2 Supply Chain Initiatives at APPLE INC. For reasons as various as its philosophy of comprehensive aesthetic design to its distinctive advertising campaigns, Apple has established a unique reputation in the consumer electronics industry. This includes a customer base that is devoted to the company and its brand, particularly in the United States.[10] Fortune magazine named Apple the most admired company in the United States in 2008, and in the world in 2008, 2009, and 2010.[11][12][13] The company has also received widespread criticism for its contractors labour, environmental, and business practices, The supply chain of the new Apple iPhone and, at some point, the supply chain of the Apple TV, hoping that this might help to demonstrate the complexity involved in manufacturing the Apple iPhone a feature-rich product I wish I could have, if I could afford it (update: Ive had several iPhones now). 1.2.3 Linking the supply chain to the business strategy The supply chain improvements described indicate that supply chain management has the potential to improve a firms competitiveness. Supply chain capability is as important to a companys overall strategy as overall product strategy. Supply chain management encourages management of processes across departments. By linking supply chain objectives to company strategy, decisions can be made between competing demands on the supply chain. Improvements in performance are driven by externally-based targets rather than by internal department objectives. Managing the supply chain means managing across traditional functional areas in the company and managing interactions external to the company with both suppliers and customers. This cross-boundary nature of management supports incorporating supply chain goals and capabilities in the strategic plan of the company. This focus on integration can then lead to using the supply chain to obtain a sustainable competitive advantage over competitors. The impact of managing overall product demand and the supply of product will impact the profitability of the company. The supply chain strategy can be viewed as the pattern of decisions related to sourcing product, capacity planning, conversion of finished product, deployment of finished product, demand management and communication, and delivery. Linking supply chain strategy to the business strategy involves defining the key business processes involved in producing a companys product or service. 1.2.4 Procurement Apple is known for its innovative thinking. They have developed a product line that is both functional and attractive. Their product line has recently expanded to another level. Their iPods will soon be able to communicate with specially designed Nike running shoes where you could receive data such as calories burned and distance ran. This project can benefit both companies and boost the demand for iPods. Apples iPod line will have a clear advantage over all the other mp3 players in the market. In addition to Apples integration with other products, many cars models from all major automakers have equipped their new models with iPod connectivity. In regards to their desktop and notebook sectors, Apple has developed new lines that are less expensive while maintaining its high quality standards. These less-expensive computers should help increase sales in the future. Apple has also changed its chip supplier from IBM to Intel. This change would make Apple more compatible with other systems. It enables Apple to run the Windows operating system, which gives the user more flexibility. 1.2.5 Quality Apple Computer Inc. is one of the oldest hardware manufacturers that control over the product by manufacturing both computers and their operation system. It is known that Apple has a high Quality product which makes Apple different than its competitors. Apple creates its product with unique designs to attract the consumers eyes and increase its market share because Apple success is based on fulfilling customers desires. Apple has one of the top brand names within the technology industry all over the world, and 54% of their profits are from foreign markets. Apple is dedicated to develop new products which will make the use of technology easier and more efficient. Apple always provides easy-use product to the hand of the consumers. Most of its products are light, small, and easy to carry around which make them more competitive. One of the great things about Apple is product diversification; Apple has a large number of product lines to target everyone in the world. In addition, there ar e a huge number of consumers who are loyal to Apple even though the prices of Apple products are higher comparing to its competitors. 1.2.6 Research and Development Apple can definitely expect a prosperous future especially in the near future. Over the past five years, net sales have been steadily increasing with almost a 200% increase from 2004 and 2005. Correspondingly, net earnings have been increasing as well. Apple owns over 80% of the market share with its iPod product. With such favorable trends, it is reasonable to assume that Apple will continue to increase in its sales, earnings, and market share just as long as it keeps developing and acquiring new strengths. For example, Apple has established its name as one of the leading, innovative forces in the computer industry that has a much diversified, high quality products that appeal to many markets. Competitors will find it difficult to compete against the company if Apple continues to strive for innovation, as it is its mission, continuing its well-developed marketing plan, further developing more high quality products, and taking advantage of its opportunities. Thus, the threat of produ ct substitution and high levels of competition would be decreased. However, although it seems that Apple is not in a position where its favorable future outlook is threatened, it is best that Apple works on its weaknesses so as to further increase its sales and decrease the possibility of losing its customers to its competitors. For example, Apple is known for its high quality products, which puts them into a competitive advantage. However some components of its products such as the iPod batteries and the iPod Nano screens are of lesser quality. Apple must increase its RD efforts to really minimize the number of products with faulty components. Thus, customers would not be lost and customer loyalty would be maintained. Another weakness that must be addressed is the high prices of its products. For example, the iPod nano ranges from $150 to $250 depending on the size, the iPod ranges from $300 to $400, and a Mac desktop is at least $1300. Such high prices discourage potential customers from purchasing Apples products. The solution to this weakness is to decrease the prices to the point where profits are still increasing. Likewise, the cost of sales should be decreased but only to the point where the quality of the products is not sacrificed. 1.3 CONCLUSION: With its already well-established name brand and its positive sales/market share growth, Apple will without a doubt continue to increase their earnings and market share. However, by working on at least some of its weaknesses through minimizing the number of faulty components in its products, decreasing its prices, and paying dividends, Apple can tremendously gain a competitive advantage over its competitors II CORPORATE STRATEGY AT RELIANCE RETAIL LIMITED 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Reliance group is founded by DHIRUBHAI H. AMBANI(1932-2001), is Indias one of the largest private sector enterprise, with businesses in energy and materials of value chains. Reliance Retail Limited (RRL) is one of the business sectors in retail chain division of RELIANCE INDUSTRIES OF INDIA, which is headed by MUKESH D. AMBANI. The company is strongly focused on future growth in Indian economy and planned to invest Rs. 25000 crores in the next 4 years in the retail divisions and plans to begin retail stores in 784 cities across the country. RRL launched its first store in November 2006 through its convenience store format Reliance Fresh. Since then RRL has rapidly grown to operate 590 stores across 13 states at the end of FY 2007-08. In each of these store formats, RRL is offering a unique set of products and services at a value price point. Overall, RRL is well positioned to rapidly expand its existing network which operates in 57 cities. 2.2 Corporate strategy CORPORATE STRATEGY is the direction an organization takes with the objective of achieving business success in the long term. Recent approaches have focused on the need for companies to adapt to and anticipate changes in the business environment, i.e. a flexible strategy. The development of a corporate strategy involves establishing the purpose and scope of the organizations activities and the nature of the business it is in, taking the environment in which it operates, its position in the marketplace, and the competition it faces into consideration; most times analyzed through a SWOT analysis. 2.2.1Operation Support Systems: 2.2.2.1 ERP System Various ERP vendors have developed retail-specific systems which help in integrating all the functions from warehousing to distribution, front and back office store systems and merchandising. An integrated supply chain helps the retailer in maintaining his stocks, getting his supplies on time, preventing stock-outs and thus reducing his costs, while servicing the customer better. 2.2.2.2 Advanced Planning and Scheduling Systems APS systems can provide improved control across the supply chain, all the way from raw material suppliers right through to the retail shelf. These APS packages complement existing (but often limited) ERP packages. They enable consolidation of activities such as long term budgeting, monthly forecasting, weekly factory scheduling and daily distribution scheduling into one overall planning process using a single set of data The major reasons behind the development of new trends are:  Ã‚ ¶ Scalable and profitable Retail models are well established for most of the categories  Ã‚ ¶ Rapid Evolution of New-age Young Indian Consumers  Ã‚ ¶ Retail Space is no more a constraint for growth  Ã‚ ¶ Partnering among Brands, retailers, franchisees, investors and malls  Ã‚ ¶ India is on the radar of Global Retailer Suppliers 2.3 Proposed Supply Chain Strategies for Retail Industry 2.3.1 Supply Chain Strategies in Retail 2.3.1.1 Breaking Bulk-: can be done in smaller lots with a good understanding with the supplier. This can be achieved by following ways: Spatial Convenience: Strategically locating the outlet with distribution networks and warehouses located proximally. Supplier holds inventory. 2.3.1.2 Vendor Managed Inventory: In this case, the vendor himself is given the responsibility to handle the inventory. A space for the vendor is rented in the outlet, and he takes care of the shelves and the space. It is a 2-way agreement wherein the vendor gets the space to market his product by interacting one-to-one with the customers. 2.3.1.3 Point of Sale Information System: As soon as one stock keeping unit moves out of the store when purchased by a customer, the information readily flows to the supplier. He is given access to the inventory database. A re-order point can be imposed based on consumption pattern and the supplier is asked to fill the shelf upon inventory reaching the re-order point. 2.3.1.4 SRM Supplier Relationship Management: Relationship with supplier should not be a marriage of convenience. Supplier has to act in ways more than what is required. By providing special offers, discounts and incentives, the supplier savors the relationship. This also serves as a promotion strategy for the outlet. 2.4 Competitive Areas of Importance 2.4.1 Fulfillment: Stock filling is taken care of at both customer end (end product) and at the end of shelves at the shop. Reaching the customer at the right time and constant check on stocks and making sure right quantity is ordered at the right time. 2.4.2 Logistics: Safe and reliable transport at as much low price as possible. Constant contact with distribution teams (trucks, trains, etc.) and track where material is. Partnership with transportation firms so that cost and transport can be shared if the shipment does not occupy the whole truck space. 2.4.3Procurement:  (Vendors side points to take care) Strong Relationship Information sharing and updating plan change Combine vendors by minimizing transportation cost Choose vendors in proximity Optimum lot size taking vendors into confidence 2.4.4Production: Line should run smoothly without delays due to ordering and transportation (fulfillment and logistics have to be met first). 2.5 7 PS OF SERVICES 1st P: PRODUCT Product- refers to the merchandise i.e. the range of clothes. Supplementary services -include a component of fashion, life style and Ambient shopping as an addition to the core product. Today, customers buy experiences and not brands or products. 2nd P : PRICING Cost plus price and Percentage method pricing: Most widely used technique to price apparels. Ex:- COLOR PLUS and IN-HOUSE brands like those of SHOPPERS STOP or WESTSIDE use this technique. 3rd P : PLACE Apparel Retailing Business is driven by one crucial factor: Location Approachable Parking 4th P: PROMOTION Print medium. Loyalty programs In-store Visual merchandising 5th P: PEOPLE Every second a customer spends inside the store has to be viewed as Moment of Truth People is that aspect of the marketing mix which adds tangibility to the service of creating an experience 6th P: PROCESSES 7th P : PHYSICAL EVIDENCE Managing Appearance of the building Location Maintaining Temperature , Music, Lighting and Fragrance inside the store Availability of services like Prams, Wheel Chair, Valet Parking etc Stylish Stocking of Merchandise 2.6 CONCLUSION: The benefits of time-phased inventory planning are numerous. The bulk of benefits contribute to improved gross margins by minimizing inventory carrying costs, reducing lost sales through improved in-stock, reducing markdowns and store-to-store transfers with more timely product availability, and improved productivity at the distribution centers and stores. It is not uncommon for retailers to experience double-digit percentage reductions in inventory while sustaining or improving service levels. Additional benefits are increased sales and customer service as the inventory plan more readily responds to changes in the demand forecast.

Russians and Americans Essay -- essays research papers

Russians and Americans Americans often think that they have a better chance of finding a common ground with aliens from outer space than with "resident aliens" from Russia. Frequently Russian immigrants feel exactly the same way about their American co-workers, classmates and even spouses. A key to gaining and sustaining a mutual respect in cross-cultural relationships is an understanding of distinctive cultural norms of people from different countries. Without going too deep into historical and psychological aspects of typical Americans’ and Russians’ behaviors and traditions, let us look at a few dissimilarities between representatives of these two cultures. In Russia, children are customarily expected to stay with their parents in the same apartment or live nearby, and parents are often very upset when children move away. This closeness arises not necessarily by choice, but by deep-rooted traditions and, later on, by difficulties in getting a separate apartments. Many older people feel that several generations should still live together. Also, Russian grandmothers feel that it is their duty to raise grandchildren; in many cases they are involved in their childrens’ live much more than parents are and they greatly enjoy it. In the USA it is customary for the younger generation to leave home right after high school, often moving across the country to start college or a new job, and live in his or her own apartment or house. The older generation is even glad, when this move occurs, and happily builds plans for a free life that starts when "children are out of the house." Traditionally, Russian men are breadwinners, and wives are house-makers and full-time mothers. After the revolution in 1917, the majority of women entered the workforce, but people's mentality has not changed. All household duties are still considered a woman's responsibility, even if she works longer hours than her husband or makes more money. Lately, in the most "modern" families, husbands have started to take on more household duties, but in the majority of families, the situation remains the same as a hundred years ago. In the USA, if both spouses work outside the home, it is a norm to share responsibilities for housekeeping and for spending time with children. More so, it is quite normal for fathers in America to take care of children after work, even i... ...k for it beforehand. If a person get caught for a traffic violation he or she better give a policeman money right away even if the person did not actually speed; otherwise that person might loose not only his or her license, but also, for a few days, his or her freedom. Americans mostly mind their own business when it comes to somebody else's demeanor or behavior as long as it does not directly disturb them. Russians on the other hand, especially older folks, very often make it their business to know other people’s business. They might on the length of a persn’t dress or the misbehavior of a child and complement this opinion with a full lecture on appropriate clothing or upbringing of youngsters. In general, Americans are individualists and Russians are collectivists. This essay is the comparison of two great different nations, which are similar and different at the same time in our views and desires, aspirations, concerns and prejudices. It seems that Americans have much of an open mind than Rusians. Russians are very conservative. In most of cases it is difficult for them to a change in their beliefs. For the Americans freedom is good, but it is nothing without responsibility.

Indian Ghost Story Essay -- essays research papers

It was February in the year 1991 when I had my experience with a ghost. I was 17 years old at the time. One Saturday evening in Phoenix, my high school was having a basketball game, and afterward my cousin and I left the school gymnasium at around 10 p.m. My cousin is from Tohono O’dham, and I was going to spend the weekend with my aunt’s family. Like myself, my aunt is Yaqui. She married a Tohono O’dham man some years ago and had two kids. One is my cousin. We got on Interstate 10 and then switched on to South Highway 15 for the drive to the town of Sells on the Tohono O’dham Reservation. About 40 minutes into our drive, we were deep in the desert. Because my car needed new tires, I had to drive just below the speed limit. The treads were just about completely worn out. I guess I had the type of car that we Indians call an â€Å"Indian car.† It was a pretty beat-up looking car, but it got me where I wanted to go. Anyway, there we were, driving in the middle of the desert with the CD player going, and the darkness all around. Suddenly, a large javelina crossed the road, and I hit that wild pig with a big old â€Å"bang!† I didn’t have time to think about stepping on the brakes, because one second there was just the road before us, and the next there was this javelina. I knew we had some big trouble with the car, because the radiator began to hiss, and steam began pouring out. I immediately drove to the side of the road and stopped the car to check on the damage. Sure enough, that animal had hit the front grill head-on, and a piece of metal had punctured my car’s radiator. Directly behind the car in the darkness e could hear the pig loudly squealing. It was a weird experience to be alone at night in the desert and to hear ... ...e before dawn, we were awakened by a truck with two guys who were headed for Sells. They sure did give us a good scare when they knocked on the car’s window, but soon we were introducing ourselves, and they offered to take us home. The guys told us they were artists driving from California. They were on a photography trip, taking pictures of the desert and Indians for an art project. We tied one end of a rope to the back of their truck and the other end to the front of our car, and they towed us home. We never mentioned our experience with the ghost the night before. But when we did get home that morning, we told my aunt and her family everything. Everyone agreed that what we had experienced was the ghost of an Indian from the spirit world. Since my encounter with that ghost, I’ve decided, if at all possible, never to drive at night through the desert again.

Dynamic and formal equivalence Essay

? Wikipedia: Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. ? General Oxford Dictionary: Translation n 1 the act or an instance of translating. 2 a written or spoken expression of the meaning of a word, speech, book, etc. in another language. ? Dictionary of Translation Studies: Translation: An incredibly broad notion which can be understood in many different ways. For example, one may talk of translation as a process or a product, and identify sub-types as literary translation, technical translation, subtitling and machine translation; moreover, while more typically it just refers to the transfer of written texts, the term sometimes also includes interpreting. ? Free Online Dictionary: trans ·la ·tion (tr[pic]ns-l[pic][pic]sh[pic]n) n. 1. a. The act or process of translating, especially from one language into another. b. The state of being translated. 2. A translated version of a text. ? Elook. org [noun] a written communication in a second language having the same meaning as the written communication in a first language. Synonyms: interlingual rendition, rendering, version In his seminal paper, ‘On Linguistic Aspects of Translation’ (Jakobson 1959/2000), the Russo-American linguist Roman Jakobson makes a very important distinction between three types of written translation: 1. Intralingual translation- translation within the same language, which can involve rewording or paraphrase. 2. Interlingual Translation- Translation from language to another, and 3. Intersemiotic Translation- Translation of the verbal sign by a non-verbal sign, e. g music or image. Only the second category, interlingual translation, is deemed ‘translation proper’ by Jackobson. Theories of Translation Eugene A. Nida Discussions about theories of translation are too often concerned with distinctions between literary and nonliterary texts, between prose and poetry, or between technical articles on physics and run-of-the-mill commercial correspondence. But in order to understand the nature of translation, the focus should not be on different types of discourse but on the processes and procedures involved in any and all kinds of interlingual communication (Bell, 1987). Furthermore, a theory of interlingual communication should not be restricted to discussions between translating and interpreting (whether consecutive or simultaneous), since interpreting differs from translating primarily because of the pressures of time and exigencies of the setting. Some professional translators take considerable pride in denying that they have any theory of translation — they just translate. In reality, however, all persons engaged in the complex task of translating possess some type of underlying or covert theory, even though it may be still very embryonic and described only as just being â€Å"faithful to what the author was trying to say. † Instead of no theories of translation, there are a multiplicity of such theories, even though they are seldomly stated in terms of a full-blown theory of why, when, and how to translate. One of the reasons for so many different views about translating is that interlingual communication has been going on since the dawn of human history. As early as the third millenium BC, bilingual lists of words — evidently for the use of translators — were being made in Mesopotamia, and today translating and interpreting are going on in more than a thousand languages — in fact, wherever there are bilinguals. One of the paradoxes of interlingual communication is that it is both amazingly complex (regarded by LA. Richards (1953) as â€Å"probably the most complex type of event yet produced in the evolution of the cosmos†) and also completely natural (Harris and Sherwood, 1978). Interpreting is often done by children with amazingly fine results, especially before they have gone to school and have learned something about nouns, verbs, and adjectives. One reason for the great variety of translation theories and subtheories is the fact that the processes of translating can be viewed from so many different perspectives: stylistics, author’s intent, diversity of languages, differences of corresponding cultures, problems of interpersonal communication, changes in literary fashion, distinct kinds of content (e.g. mathematical theory and lyric poetry), and the circumstances in which translations are to be used, e. g. read in the tranquil setting of one’s own living room, acted on the theatre stage, or blared from a loudspeaker to a restless mob. The wide range of theories and the great diversity of problems in translation have been treated by a number of persons interested in translation theory and practice, e. g. Guttinger (1963), Vazquez Ayora (1977), and Wilss (1988). A theory should be a coherent and integrated set of propositions used as principles for explaining a class of phenomena. But a fully satisfactory theory of translating should be more than a list of rules-of-thumb by which translators have generally succeeded in reproducing reasonably adequate renderings of source texts. A satisfactory theory should help in the recognition of elements which have not been recognized before, as in the case of black holes in astrophysics. A theory should also provide a measure of predictability about the degree of success to be expected from the use of certain principles, given the particular expectations of an audience, the nature of the content, the amount of information carried by the form of the discourse, and the circumstances of use. Despite a number of important treatments of the basic principles and procedures of translation, no full-scale theory of translation now exists. In fact, it is anomalous to speak of â€Å"theories of translation,† since all that has been accomplished thus far are important series of insightful perspectives on this complex undertaking. The basic reason for this lack of adequate theoretical treatments is that translating is essentially a technology which is dependent upon a number of disciplines: linguistics, cultural anthropology, psychology, communication theory, and neurophysiology. We really know so little about what makes translators tick. But tick they must — and increasingly so in a shrinking multilingual world. Instead of speaking of theories of translation, we should perhaps speak more about various approaches to the task of translating, different orientations which provide helpful insight, and diverse ways of talking about how a message can be transferred from one language to another. The different ways in which people go about the task of interlingual communication can perhaps be best described in terms of different perspectives: (1) the source text, including its production, transmission, and history of interpretation, (2) the languages involved in restructuring the source-language message into the receptor (or target) language, (3) the communication events which constitute the setting of the source message and the translated text, and (4) the variety of codes involved in the respective communication events. These four different perspectives could be regarded as essentially philological, linguistic, communicative, and sociosemiotic. These four major perspectives on the problems of interlingual communication should not, however, be regarded as competitive or antagonistic, but as complementary and supplementary. They do not invalidate one another but result in a broader understanding of the nature of translating. They do, nevertheless, reflect an interesting historical development as the focus of attention has shifted from emphasis on the starting point, namely, the source text, to the manner in which a text is understood by those who receive and interpret it. Such a development is quite natural in view of the fact that all communication is goal oriented and moves from the source’s intention to the receptor’s interpretation. The philological perspective The philological perspective on translation in the Western World goes back ultimately to some of the seminal observations by such persons as Cicero, Horace, Augustine, and Jerome, whose principal concerns were the correct rendering of Greek texts into Latin. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe the philological orientation in translating focused on the issue of â€Å"faithfulness,† usually bound closely to the history of interpretation of the text, something which was especially crucial in the case of Bible translations. For the most part, arguments about the adequacy of translations dealt with the degree of freedom which could or should be allowed, and scholars discussed heatedly whether a translator should bring the reader to the text or bring the text to the reader. Some of the most important early contributions to the philological aspects of translation were made by Luther (1530), Etienne Dolet (1540), Cowley (1656), Dryden (1680), and Pope (1715), but Luther’s influence was probably the greatest in view of his having directly and indirectly influenced so many Bible translations first in Western Europe and later in other parts of the world. This philological perspective is still very much alive, as witnessed by the important contributions of such persons as Cary and Jumpelt (1963), George Steiner (1975), and John Felstiner (1980). Felstiner’s book on Translating Neruda is a particularly valuable contribution to the problem of translating lyric poetry. And the numerous articles in Translation Review, published by the University of Texas at Dallas on behalf of the American Literary Translators Association, represent very well this philological perspective. It is amazing, however, that avowedly philological approaches to translating can result in such radically different results. Those who set their priorities on preserving the literary form produce the kinds of translations which one finds in the text of 2 Corinthians 10. 14-16 in the New American Standard Version of the Bible: For we are not overextending ourselves, as if we did not reach to you, for we were the first to come even as far as you in the gospel of Christ; not boasting beyond our measure, that is, in other men’s labors, but with the hope that as your faith grows, we shall be, within our sphere, enlarged even more by you, so as to preach the gospel even to the regions beyond you, and not to boast in what has been accomplished in the sphere of another. The Greek of this passage is not stylistically bad, but this English butchering of it is hacking at its worst. Many translators have, however, succeeded brilliantly in combining sensitivity to style with faithfulness to content, perhaps represented most strikingly in the rendering of the plays of Aristophanes by Benjamin B. Rogers in the Loeb series (1924). The Clouds is an especially difficult text to translate adequately, since it combines sublime lyrical passages, sharp barbs against philosophy, satirical treatment of Greek education, and ribald humor, which must have kept the crowds roaring with laughter. Rogers makes the text come alive with frequent shifts in meter to match the mood, clever plays on the meanings of words, and particularly adroit handling of dialogue, even to the point of toning down the scatological comments to match the Victorian tastes of his readers. A number of the essential features and limitations of the philological perspective on translating literary works are helpfully described and discussed by Paz (1971) and by Mounin (1963). Octavio Paz has the special gift of being able to discuss issues of literary translation with the touch of a literary artist, which indeed he is. And Georges Mounin has a way of delineating diverse opinions and judgments so as perform an elegant balancing act. Those who have followed primarily a philological orientation toward translating have increasingly recognized that other factors must be given greater attention. In the volume On Translation, edited by Brower (1959), and in the volume Translation: Literary, Linguistic, and Philosophical Perspectives, edited by Frawley (1984), these broader factors of linguistic and cultural matters are introduced and point the way to a more satisfactory approach to some of the crucial problems confronted by translators. The linguistic perspective Since translating always involves at least two different languages, it was inevitable that a number of persons studying the issues of translation would focus upon the distinctive features of the source and receptor languages. Important studies of diverse linguistic structures by such persons as Sapir, Bloomfield, Trubetskoy, and Jakobson laid the foundation for a systematic study of the functions of language. Then the analysis of languages outside of the Semitic and IndoEuropean families by linguist-anthropologists provided the creative stimulus for seeing interlingual relations in new and creative ways. Chomsky (1965, 1972) and his colleagues added a dynamic dimension to language structure through the use of transformations. All this led to the publication of a number of books on translating which have focused primary attention on the correspondences in language structures. Some of the most important of these books were by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958), Nida (1964), Catford (1965), Tatilon (1986), Larson (1984) and Malone (1988). Except for Malone’s volume, most books dealing with the linguistic aspects of translating have been essentially aimed at meaningful relations rather than purely formal ones. This is particularly true of the approach of Nida and of Larson. But Malone’s volume employs a transformational orientation for a number of formal and semantic processes, including equation, substitution, divergence, convergence, amplification, reduction, diffusion, and condensation. This focus on processes is very productive, but greater attention needs to be paid to the pragmatic features of the original message and to the circumstances regarding the use of a translation. Developments in transformational-generative grammar, with its Boolean rewrite rules and seemingly precise formulas for embedding, gave machine translating a great methodological boost, but this was not adequate to fulfill the expectations aroused through early promotion by computer enthusiasts. The limited success of machine translating, since it requires so much preediting and postediting, has resulted in a shift of focus from purely linguistic methods to Artificial Intelligence as a possible source of fresh insights. But even with highly sophisticated techniques the resulting translations often sound very unnatural (Somers et al, 1988). Some important indirect contributions to a linguistic approach to translating have been made by a number of philosophers interested in linguistic analysis as a way of bringing philosophy down from the clouds of truth, beauty, and goodness to the realism of talking about the language of philosophical discussion. Some of the most influential of these philosophers have been Wittgenstein (1953), Cassirer (1953), Grice (1968), Quine (1953, 1959), and Ric? ur (1969). Many of their insights have been effectively discussed from the linguistic viewpoint by Wells (1954), Antal (1963), Leech (1970), and Moravcsik (1972). These developments provided an important stimulus for developing a less naive approach to epistemology in translation theory. It also encouraged greater interest in the ordinary uses of language in dialogue and helped to undermine false confidence in the reliability of natural language. A number of psychological insights about translating have been contributed by Ladmiral (1972), who has treated a variety of psychological factors which  influence the ways in which linguistic and cultural elements in communication are processed by the mind. And Lambert (1978) has distinguished two different types of bilingualism based on a speaker’s degree of integration of the respective language codes. This should prove very useful in understanding certain marked differences in the manner in which translators and interpreters perform. The communicative perspective The volume From One Language to Another (de Waard and Nida, 1986) reflects the importance of a number of basic elements in communication theory, namely, source, message, receptor, feedback, noise, setting, and medium. It also treats the processes of encoding and decoding of the original communication and compares these with the more complex series in the translation process. Linguists working in the field of sociolinguistics, e. g. Labov (1972), Hymes (1974), and Gumperz (1982), have made particularly important contributions to understanding principles of translating which focus upon various processes in communication. This relation between sociolinguistics and translation is a very natural one, since sociolinguists deal primarily with language as it is used by society in communicating. The different ways in which societies employ language in interpersonal relations are crucial for anyone concerned with translating. Any approach to translating based on communication theory must give considerable attention to the paralinguistic and extralinguistic features of oral and written messages. Such features as tone of voice, loudness, peculiarities of enunciation, gestures, stance, and eye contact are obviously important in oral communication, but many people fail to realize that analogous factors are also present in written communication, e. g.  style of type, format, quality of paper, and type of binding. For effective impact and appeal, form cannot be separated from content, since form itself carries so much meaning, although in Suzanne Langer’s sense of â€Å"presentational† rather than â€Å"discoursive† truth (1951). This joining of form and content has inevitably led to more serious attention being given to the major functions of language, e. g. informative, expressive, cognitive, imperative, performative, emotive, and interpersonal, including the recognition that the information function is much less prominent than has been traditionally thought. In fact, information probably accounts for less that twenty percent of what goes on in the use of language. This emphasis upon the functions of language has also served to emphasize the importance of discourse structures, also spoken of as â€Å"rhetoric† and â€Å"poetics,† in which important help for translators has come through contributions by Jakobson (1960), Grimes (1972), and Traugott and Pratt (1980). This focus on discourse structures means that any judgment about the validity of a translation must be judged in terms of the extent to which the corresponding source and receptor texts adequately fulfill their respective functions. A minimal requirement for adequacy of a translation would be that the readers would be able to comprehend and appreciate how the original readers of the text understood and possibly responded to it. A maximal requirement for translational adequacy would mean that the readers of the translation would respond to the text both emotively and cognitively in a manner essentially similar to the ways in which the original readers responded. The minimal requirement would apply to texts which are so separated by cultural and linguistic differences as to make equivalent responses practically impossible, e. g. translations into English of West African healing incantations. A maximal requirement would apply to the translation of some of Heinrich Heine’s poems into English. Such requirements of equivalence point to the possibilities and limitations of translating various text types having diverse functions. Mounin (1963) treats this same issue as a matter of â€Å"translatability,† and Reiss (1972) has discussed the communicative aspects of translation by calling attention to the issue of functional equivalence. The sociosemiotic perspective. The central focus in a sociosemiotic perspective on translation is the multiplicity of codes involved in any act of verbal communication. Words never occur without some added paralinguistic or extralinguistic features. And when people listen to a speaker, they not only take in the verbal message, but on the basis of background information and various extralinguistic codes, they make judgments about a speaker’s sincerity, commitment to truth, breadth of learning, specialized knowledge, ethnic background, concern for other people, and personal attractiveness. In fact, the impact of the verbal message is largely dependent upon judgments based on these extralinguistic codes. Most people are completely unaware of such codes, but they are crucial for what people call their â€Å"gut feelings. â€Å"These types of codes are always present in one way or another, whether in oral or written communication, but there are certain other accompanying codes which are optional and to which the verbal message must adjust in varying ways, e. g. the action in a drama, the music of a song, and the multiple visual and auditory features of a multimedia essay. These optional codes often become the dominant factors in a translation, especially when lip synchronization is required in television films. The problem of multiple codes and their relation to the social setting of communication have been helpfully treated by a number of persons, e. g. Eco (1976), Krampen (1979), Merrell (1979), and Robinson (1985). The beginning of a sociosemiotic approach to translating has been undertaken by de Waard and Nida (1986) and by Toury (1980), but a good deal more must be done to understand the precise manner in which the language code relates to other behavioral codcs. In the first place, language must be viewed not as a cognitive construct, but as a shared set of habits using the voice to communicate. This set of habits has developed within society, is transmitted by society, and is learned within a social setting. This implies a clear shift away from abstract and reductionist approaches to language and toward the sociolinguistic contexts of performance in both encoding and decoding messages communicated by multiple codes. This also means that in both encoding and decoding there is a dialogic engagement between source and receptors, both in anticipatory feedback (anticipating how receptors will react) and in actual feedback through verbal and nonverbal codes. In the second place, language must also be viewed as potentially and actually idiosyncratic and sociosyncratic, in the sense that people may create new types of expressions, may construct new literary forms, and may attach new significance to older forms of expression. Discourse, in fact, becomes as much a matter of fashion as any other element of communication, and outstanding communicators can set new standards and initiate new trends.  The advantages of a sociosemiotic approach to translating are to be found in (1) employing a realistic epistemology which can speak relevantly about the real world of everyday experience, since its basis is a triadic relation between sign, referent, and interpretant (the process of interpretation based on the system of signs  and on the dialogic function of society), (2) Being at the cutting edge of verbal creativity, rather than being bound by reductionist requirements which depend on ideal speaker-hearers, who never exist, (3) recognizing the plasticity of language, the fuzzy boundaries of usage, and the ultimate indeterminacy of meaning, which makes language such a frustrating and subtly elegant vehicle for dialogue, and (4) being essentially interdisciplinary in view of the multiplicity of codes. The full implications of sociosemiotic theories and their relation to translation are only now emerging, but they have the potential for developing highly significant insights and numerous practical procedures for more meaningful and acceptable results.